This study assesses the effects of afterschool program participation on demand for shadow
education at the lower secondary level in South Korea, using data from the Korean Education
Longitudinal Survey (KELS) tracing a nationally representative sample of South Korean students from
grade 7 to grade 9. To address potential selection bias, the present study employs a series of more
rigorous analytical strategies including Hackman model and propensity score matching model.
Regardless of the models used, results consistently show that afterschool program participation make
little difference in shadow education participation and spending among South Korean middle school
students. Findings cast doubts on the effectiveness of afterschool programs as a strategy to reduce
shadow education demand.